Lead
From Biocrawler, the free encyclopedia.
- This article is about the chemical element. For other meanings, see Lead (disambiguation).
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| Name, Symbol, Number | Lead, Pb, 82 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chemical series | Poor metals | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Group, Period, Block | 14(IVA), 6 , p | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Density, Hardness | 11340 kg/m3, 1.5 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Appearance | bluish white
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| Atomic properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic weight | Note: not SI 207.2 amu | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic radius (calc.) | 180 (154) pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Covalent radius | 147 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| van der Waals radius | 202 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electron configuration | [Xe]4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| e- 's per energy level | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Oxidation states (Oxide) | 4, 2 (amphoteric) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Crystal structure | Cubic face centered | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Physical properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| State of matter | Solid (diamagnetic) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Melting point | 600.61 K (327.461 °C) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Boiling point | 2022 K ( 1748.888°C) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Molar volume | 18.26 ×10-6 m3/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of vaporization | 177.7 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of fusion | 4.799 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vapor pressure | 0.421 µPa at 600 K | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Speed of sound | 1260 m/s at 293.15 K | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Miscellaneous | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electronegativity | 2.33 (Pauling scale) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Specific heat capacity | 129 J/(kg·K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrical conductivity | 4.81 MS/m | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal conductivity | 35.3 W/(m·K) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1st ionization potential | 715.6 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2nd ionization potential | 1450.5 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3rd ionization potential | 3081.5 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 4th ionization potential | 4083 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 5th ionization potential | 6640 kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Most stable isotopes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| SI units & STP are used except where noted. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Lead is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Pb (L. Plumbum) and atomic number 82. A soft, heavy, toxic and malleable poor metal, lead is bluish white when freshly cut but tarnishes to dull gray when exposed to air. Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, and is part of solder, pewter, and fusible alloys. Lead has the highest atomic number of all stable elements. (But see the article on Bismuth, which has a half life so long it can be considered stable.)
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Notable characteristics
Lead has a bright luster and is a dense, ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical conductivity. This true metal is highly resistant to corrosion. Because of this property, it is used to contain corrosive liquids (e.g. sulfuric acid). Lead can be toughened by adding a small amount of antimony or other metals to it. Lead is the only metal in which there is zero Thomson effect.
Applications
- Lead is used in car batteries.
- Lead was used as a white pigment in Lead paint.
- Lead was used for plumbing in Ancient Rome, and lead sticks were used as pencils (for the last 450 years they've been made with graphite).
- Because of its density, fishing sinkers are made from lead.
History
Lead has been used by humans for at least 7000 years, because it was (and continues to be) widespread and easy to extract, as well as easy to work with, being both highly malleable and ductile as well as easy to smelt. Lead was mentioned in the Book of Exodus. Alchemists thought that lead was the oldest metal and associated it with the planet Saturn. Lead pipes that bear the insignia of Roman emperors are still in service and many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of the industry in other English centres. Lead's symbol Pb is an abbreviation of its Latin name plumbum. The English word "plumbing" also derives from this Latin root.
By the mid-1980s, a significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Much of this shift was a result of the U.S. lead consumers' compliance with environmental regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated the use of lead in nonbattery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems.
Occurrence
Native lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Currently lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these metals. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6% lead. Other common varieties are cerussite (PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4). But more than half of the lead used currently comes from recycling.
In mining, the ore is extracted by drilling or blasting and then crushed and ground. The ore is then treated using extractive metallurgy. The Froth flotation process separates the lead and other minerals from the waste rock (tailings) to form a concentrate. The concentrate, which can range from 50% to 60% lead, is dried and then treated using pyrometallurgy. The concentrate is sintered before being smelted in to produce a 97% lead concentrate. The lead is then cooled in stages which causes the lighter impurites (dross) to rise to the surface where they can be removed. The molten lead bullion is then refined by additional smelting with air being passed over the lead to form a slag layer containing any remaining impurities and producing 99.9% pure lead.
Isotopes
Lead has four stable, naturally occurring isotopes: Pb-204 (1.4%), Pb-206 (24.1%), Pb-207 (22.1%) and Pb-208 (52.4%). Pb-206, Pb-207 and Pb-208 are all radiogenic, and are the end products of complex decay chains that begin at U-238, U-235 and Th-232 respectively. The corresponding half-lives of these decay schemes vary markedly: 4.47 × 109, 7.04 × 108 and 1.4 × 1010 years, respectively. Each is reported relative to 204Pb, the only non-radiogenic stable isotope. The ranges of isotopic ratios for most natural materials are 14.0-30.0 for Pb-206/Pb-204, 15.0-17.0 for Pb-207/Pb-204 and 35.0-50.0 for Pb-208/Pb-204, although numerous examples outside these ranges are reported in the literature.
Precautions
Lead is a poisonous metal that can damage nervous connections (especially in young children) and cause blood and brain disorders. Long term exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO2) can cause nephropathy, and colic-like abdominal pains. The historical use of lead acetate (also known as sugar of lead) by the Roman Empire as a sweetener for wine is considered by some to be the cause of the dementia which affected many of the Roman Emperors.
Health effects
Main article: lead poisoning
The concern about lead's role in mental retardation in children has brought about widespread reduction in its use (lead exposure has been linked to schizophrenia). Paint containing lead has been withdrawn from sale in industralised countries, though many older houses may still contain substantial lead in their old paint: it is generally recommended that old paint should not be stripped by sanding, as this generates inhalable dust.
Lead salts used in pottery glazes have on occasion caused poisoning, when acid drinks, such as fruit juices, have leached lead ions out of the glaze. It has been suggested that what was known as "Devon colic" arose from the use of lead-lined presses to extract apple juice in the manufacture of cider. Lead is considered to be particularly harmful for women's ability to reproduce. For that reason many universities do not hand out lead-containing samples to girls for instructional laboratory analyses.
The earliest pencils actually used lead, though 'pencil leads' have been made for the last couple of centuries from graphite, a naturally occurring form (allotrope) of carbon.
Language derivations
The Latin plumbum has given birth to a number of terms in the English language:
- Plumbing, or system of piping, derives from the fact that pipes were once made of lead.
- Plumb bob or plummet, a small, pointed body of metal the weight of which is used to draw a string vertical under tension, refers to the fact that they were originally made from lead.
- Plumb wall is so-said because a plumb bob is used to find the vertical.
- Plumbing the depths derives from the use of the lead weight to draw the sounding line down to the bottom of the water body (or to the end of the line if the water's really deep!).
- Plumb crazy may derive from the fact that lead poisoning can cause insanity; or, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, from a U.S. sense of plum (derived from plumb) meaning 'completely'.
- Plumbism is the medical term for lead poisoning.
- Aplomb comes from the French à plomb, meaning plumb vertical, and therefore confident and cool.
The plum, however, does not get its name from this root. Rather, plum is derived from the Old English word plume.
References
- Los Alamos National Laboratory - Lead (http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/82.html)
External links
- WebElements.com - Lead (http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Pb/index.html)
- EnvironmentalChemistry.com - Lead (http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/periodic/Pb.html)
- Do lead fishing sinkers threaten the environment? (http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mfishsinkers.html) (from The Straight Dope)
Literature
- Keisch, B., Feller, R. L., Levine, A. S., and Edwards, R. R.: Dating and Authenticating Works of Art by Measurement of Natural Alpha Emitters. In: Science, 155, No. 3767, p. 1238-1242, 1967.
- Keisch, B: Dating Works of Art Trough their Natural Radioactivity: Improvements and Applications. In: Science, 160, p. 413-415, 1968.
- Keisch, B: Discriminating Radioactivity Measurements of Lead: New Tool for Authentication. In: Curator, 11, No. 1., p. 41-52, 1968.
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